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(
March 2026
)
(
)
For other uses, see
.
"Pholidota" redirects here. For the orchid, see
.
Pangolin
Temporal range:
47.8–0
Middle
– present
Various living and extinct pangolin
genera; from top down:
,
,
and
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Mirorder:
Clade
:
Order:
, 1904
Living genera
For fossil groups, see text
Ranges of living species
list of synonyms:
Afredentata
Szalay & Schrenk,
1994
Lepidota
Lane, 1910
Manides
Gervais, 1854
Maniformes
Zagorodniuk, 2008
Manitheria
Haeckel, 1895
Neomanida
Haeckel, 1895
Nomarthra
Cope, 1889
Pholidotheria
Haeckel, 1895
Pholidotiformes
Kinman, 1994
Pholidotina
Pearse, 1936
Repentia
Newman, 1843
Scutata
Murray, 1866
Squamata
Huxley, 1872
Squamigera
Gill, 1910
Squamosa
Haeckel, 1895
Pangolins
, also called
scaly anteaters
,
are
of the order
Pholidota
(
). The one
family, the
, has three genera:
,
, and
.
Manis
comprises five species found in
Asia, while
Phataginus
and
Smutsia
include two species each, all found in sub-Saharan Africa.
These species
range in size from 30 to 100 cm (12 to 39 in). Several
pangolin species are also known. In September
2023,
, although it is only known from confiscated scales and has never been observed
in the wild.
Pangolins have large, protective
scales, covering their skin. Depending on the species, they live in
hollow trees or
. Pangolins are
, and their diet consists of mainly
and
, which they
capture using their long tongues.
They tend to be solitary animals, meeting only to mate and produce a litter
of one to three offspring, which they raise for about two years.
Pangolins are
(for their meat and scales, which are used in
)
and heavy
of their natural habitats, and are also the most
mammals in the world.
As
of January 2020
, there are eight species of pangolin whose
is listed in the
tier.
Three (
,
and
) are critically endangered, three (
,
and
) are endangered and two (
and
) are vulnerable on the
of the
.
Etymology
[
]
The name of order Pholidota comes from
Φολιδωτός
– "clad in scales"
from
φολίς
pholís
"
".
The name "pangolin" comes from the
word
pengguling
meaning "one who rolls up"
from
guling
or
giling
"to
roll"; it was used for the
(
Manis javanica
).
However, the modern name is
tenggiling
. In
,
it is
terenggiling
;
and in the
, it is
goling
,
tanggiling
, or
balintong
(with
the same meaning).
In ancient India, according to
, it was known as the
phattáges
(φαττάγης).
Description
[
]
Pangolin
at the
(2009)
Schematic drawing of pangolin
scale histology
The physical appearance of a pangolin is marked by large, hardened, overlapping, plate-like scales, which are
soft on newborn pangolins, but harden as the animal matures.
They are made of
, the same material from
which human
and
are made, and are structurally and compositionally very different from
the scales of reptiles.
The pangolin's scaled body is comparable in appearance to a
. It can curl up
into a ball when threatened, with its overlapping scales acting as
, while it protects its face by tucking
it under its tail. The scales are sharp, providing extra defense from predators.
Despite their appearance,
they are not closely related to
, having both evolved scales by
.
Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from
, similar to the spray of a
.
They have short legs, with sharp claws which they use for burrowing into
and
mounds and for
climbing.
The tongues of pangolins are extremely long, and like those of the
and the
,
the root of the tongue is not attached to the
bone but is in the
between the
and the
.
Large pangolins can extend their tongues as much as 40 cm (16 in), with a diameter of only about
0.5 cm (
1
⁄
5
in).
Behaviour
[
]
in defensive
posture
defending itself
against
Most pangolins are
animals
which use their well-developed sense of smell to find insects. The
is also active by day, while other species of pangolins spend most of the daytime sleeping,
curled up into a ball ("
").
pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground-dwelling species dig tunnels to a depth of 3.5 m
(11 ft).
Some pangolins walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad, although they use the entire foot pad on their
rear limbs. Furthermore, some exhibit a
stance for some behavior, and may walk a few steps bipedally.
Pangolins are also good swimmers.
Diet
[
]
Pangolins are
. Most of their diet consists of various species of ants and termites and may be
supplemented by other insects, especially larvae. They are somewhat particular and tend to consume only one or
two species of insects, even when many species are available. A pangolin can consume 140–200 g (5–7 oz) of
insects per day.
Pangolins are an important regulator of termite populations in their natural habitats.
Pangolins have very poor
. They also lack teeth. They rely heavily on
and
, and they have
other physical characteristics to help them eat ants and termites. Their skeletal structure is sturdy and they
have strong front legs used for tearing into termite mounds.
They use their powerful front claws to dig into
trees, soil, and vegetation to find prey,
then proceed to use their long tongues to probe inside the insect
tunnels and to retrieve their prey.
The structure of their tongue and stomach is key to aiding pangolins in obtaining and digesting insects. Their
is sticky,
causing ants and termites to stick to their long tongues when they are hunting through insect tunnels.
However, without teeth, pangolins cannot chew;
so while
, they ingest small stones (
), which
accumulate in their stomachs to help to grind up ants.
This part of their stomach is called the
, and it is
also covered in keratinous spines.
These spines further aid in the grinding up and digestion of the pangolin's
prey.
Some species, such as the
, use their strong,
tails to hang from tree branches and strip away
bark from the trunk, exposing insect nests inside.
Reproduction
[
]
A
pup and
its mother, a
species
to the
island group. It is
threatened by illegal poaching for
the
to China and
, where it is regarded as a
luxury medicinal delicacy.
Pangolins are solitary and meet only to reproduce, with mating typically taking place at night after the male and
female pangolin meet near a watering hole. Males are larger than females, weighing up to 40% more. While the mating
season is not defined, they typically mate once each year, usually during the summer or autumn. Rather than the males
seeking out the females, males
and the females find them. If competition over
a female occurs, the males use their tails as clubs to fight for the opportunity to mate with her.
periods differ by species, ranging from roughly 70 to 140 days.
African pangolin females usually give
birth to a single offspring at a time, but the Asiatic species may give birth to from one to three.
Weight at
birth is
80 to 450 g (
2
3
⁄
4
to
15
3
⁄
4
oz), and the average length is 150 mm (6 in). At the time of birth, the scales
are soft and white. After several days, they harden and darken to resemble those of an adult pangolin. During the
vulnerable stage, the mother stays with her offspring in the burrow, nursing it, and wraps her body around it if she
senses danger. The young cling to the mother's tail as she moves about, although, in burrowing species, they remain in
the burrow for the first two to four weeks of life. At one month, they first leave the burrow riding on the mother's
back.
takes place around three months of age, when the young begin to eat insects in addition to nursing. At
two years of age, the offspring are sexually mature and are abandoned by the mother.
Classification and phylogeny
[
]
Further information:
Taxonomy
[
]
Former classification (McKenna & Bell, 1997):
Current classification:
Order:
Pholidota
Weber, 1904
Family:
Gray, 1821
Family: †
Simpson, 1927
Family: †
Wortman, 1903
:
Genus: †
Fox, 1984
Genus: †
Jepsen, 1932
Order:
Pholidota
Weber, 1904
Suborder:
Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Superfamily:
Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family:
Gray, 1821
Family:
Szalay & Schrenk 1998 [
sensu
Gaudin, Emry & Pogue, 2006]
Genus: †
Filhol, 1893
Superfamily: †
Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
Family: †
Storch, 2003
Suborder: †
Szalay & Schrenk, 1994
Family: †
Szalay & Schrenk, 1994
Genus: †
Gaudin, Emry & Wible, 2009
:
†
Pickford, 2008
Summary of extant species
[
]
Common name
Trend
Notes
Image
Manis mysteria
unknown
NE
Identified via genetic analyses in 2023.
Species has not been assessed by IUCN.
Manis culionensis
unknown
Manis javanica
unknown
Population in Singapore is estimated to be
1,068 individuals. Thousands of this
species are estimated to be illegally
exported annually.
Manis pentadactyla
45,000-120,000
Values given are a very rough estimate
given various, disjointed national
estimates.
Some taxonomists split another species, the
, from this
species;
IUCN currently retains it as a
subspecies of
M. pentadactyla
.
Manis crassicaudata
unknown
Species is heavily threatened by
exportation for
.
Phataginus tricuspis
unknown
The scales of >400,000 individuals were
seized from illegal wildlife trade between
2015-2019.
(Giant pangolin)
Smutsia gigantea
unknown
(Long-tailed
pangolin)
Phataginus
tetradactyla
unknown
(Ground pangolin)
Smutsia temminckii
unknown
Population of this species over its South
African range is estimated to be 16,329–
24,102 mature individuals.
Phylogeny
[
]
Among placentals
[
]
See also:
The order Pholidota was long considered to be the
to
(neotropical
,
, and
), but recent genetic evidence
indicates their closest living relatives are the
, with which they form a
, the
.
are even closer
relatives to pangolins, being classified with pangolins in the clade
.
The split between carnivorans and pangolins is estimated to
have occurred 79.47
(million years) ago.
Among Manidae
[
]
The first dichotomy in the
of extant Manidae separates Asian pangolins (
Manis
) from African pangolins (
Smutsia
and
Phataginus
).
Within the
former,
Manis pentadactyla
is the
to a clade comprising
M. crassicaudata
and
M. javanica
. Within the latter, a split separates the large
terrestrial African pangolins of the genus
Smutsia
from the small arboreal African pangolins of the genus
Phataginus
.
Cladogram of living pangolins after Wangmo et al. (2025) study:
Manidae
(
)
Asian and African pangolins are thought to have diverged about 41.37 Ma ago.
Moreover, the
position of
Manis
within Pholidota
suggests
the group originated in Eurasia, consistent with their
phylogeny.
Threats
[
]
See also:
Confiscated black market
pangolin scales, which are in high
demand in
,
which were destroyed
by authorities in
in 2017
Pangolins are in high demand in southern China and
because their scales are believed to have medicinal
properties in
and
.
Their meat is also considered a delicacy.
100,000 are estimated to be trafficked a year to China and Vietnam,
amounting to over one million over the past
decade.
This makes them the most
in the world.
This, coupled with
, has
led to a large decrease in the numbers of pangolins. Some species, such as
have become
commercially extinct in certain ranges as a result of overhunting.
In November 2010, pangolins were added to the
's list of evolutionarily distinct and
endangered mammals.
All eight species of pangolin are assessed as threatened by the
, while three are classified as
.
All pangolin species are currently listed under Appendix I of
which prohibits international trade, except when the product is intended for non-
commercial purposes and a permit has been granted.
China had been the main destination country for pangolins until 2018, where it was surpassed by Vietnam. In 2019, Vietnam was reported to have seized the
largest volumes of pangolin scales, surpassing Nigeria that year.
Pangolins are also hunted and eaten in Ghana and are one of the more popular types of
, while local healers use the pangolin as a source of
traditional medicine.
A 2025 study in
Nature Ecology & Evolution
found that opportunistic hunting for meat, rather than hunting for scales used in
traditional medicine, is the primary driver of pangolin population declines in Nigeria.
Though pangolins are protected by an international ban on their trade, populations have suffered from illegal trafficking due to beliefs in East Asia
that their ground-up scales can stimulate
or cure cancer or
.
In the past decade, numerous seizures of illegally trafficked pangolin
and pangolin meat have taken place in Asia.
In one such incident in April 2013, 10,000 kg (22,000 pounds) of pangolin meat were seized from a
Chinese vessel that ran aground in the
.
In another case in August 2016, an Indonesian man was arrested after police raided his home
and found over 650 pangolins in freezers on his property.
The same threat is reported in
, where the animal is on the verge of extinction due
to
.
The overexploitation comes from hunting pangolins for game meat and the reduction of their forest habitats due to deforestation
caused by
.
The pangolin are hunted as game meat for both medicinal purposes and food consumption.
Virology
[
]
COVID-19 infection
[
]
See also:
The
of a specific receptor-binding domain of the
belonging to
taken from pangolins was found to be a
99% match with SARS coronavirus 2 (
), the virus which causes
and is responsible for the
.
Researchers in
, China, hypothesized that SARS-CoV-2 had originated in bats, and prior to infecting humans, was circulating among pangolins. The illicit
Chinese trade of pangolins for use in
was suggested as a
for human transmission.
However, whole-genome
comparison found that the pangolin and human
share only up to 92% of their RNA.
Ecologists worried that the early speculation about
pangolins being the source may have led to mass slaughters, endangering them further, which was similar to what happened to
during the
outbreak.
It was later proved that the testing which suggested that pangolins were a potential host for the virus was flawed, when
showed that the
and its binding to receptors in pangolins had minimal effect from the virus, and therefore were not likely
mechanisms for COVID-19 infections in humans.
Pestivirus
and
Coltivirus
[
]
In 2020, two novel RNA viruses distantly related to
and
have been detected in the genomes of dead
Manis javanica
and
Manis
pentadactyla
.
To refer to both sampling site and hosts, they were named Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV). The DYPV
pestivirus was also identified in
nymph
from a diseased pangolin.
In addition to pestiviruses and coltiviruses, genomic surveys of healthy pangolins have revealed the presence of multiple potentially zoonotic viruses,
including coronaviruses, flaviviruses, and circoviruses, indicating that pangolins naturally harbor diverse viral communities without showing disease
symptoms.
Folk medicine
[
]
Pangolins are threatened by
illegal hunting and trading due to
their use in folk medicine.
Pangolin scales and flesh are used as ingredients for various
preparations.
While no
exists for the efficacy of those practices, and they have no logical
,
their popularity still drives the
for animal body parts, despite concerns about
toxicity, transmission of diseases from animals to humans, and species extermination.
The ongoing demand for
parts as ingredients continues to fuel
.
The first record of pangolin scales occurs in
Ben Cao Jinji Zhu
("Variorum of Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica", 500 CE), which recommends pangolin
scales for protection against ant bites; burning the scales as a cure for people crying hysterically during the night.
During the
, a
recipe for expelling evil spirits with a formulation of scales, herbs, and minerals appeared in 682, and in 752 CE the idea that pangolin scales could
also stimulate milk secretion in lactating women, one of the main uses today, was recommended in the
Wai Tai Mi Yao
("Arcane Essentials from the
Imperial Library").
In the
, the notion of penetrating and clearing blockages was emphasized in the
Taiping sheng hui fan
("Formulas
from Benevolent Sages Compiled During the Era of Peace and Tranquility"), compiled by Wang Huaiyin in 992.
In the 21st century, the main uses of pangolin scales are
practices based on unproven claims the scales dissolve
, promote blood
circulation, or help
secrete milk.
The supposed health effects of pangolin meat and scales claimed by
practitioners are based on their consumption of ants, long tongues, and protective scales.
The
included Chinese pangolin scales as an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine formulations.
Pangolins were removed from the
Pharmacopoeia
starting from the first half of 2020.
Although pangolin scales have been removed from the list of raw ingredients, the scales are still listed as a
key ingredient in various medicines.
Pangolin parts are also used for medicinal purposes in other Asian countries such as India, Nepal and Pakistan. In some parts of India and Nepal, locals
believe that wearing the scales of a pangolin can help prevent pneumonia.
Pangolin scales have also been used for medicinal purposes in Malaysia,
Indonesia and northern Myanmar. Indigenous people in southern
, Philippines, have held the belief that elders could avoid prostate illnesses by
wearing belts made with the scales.
Conservation
[
]
A coat of
from India, presented in
1875–76 to the then
, the later
.
As a result of increasing threats to pangolins, mainly in the form of illegal, international trade in pangolin skin, scales,
and meat, these species have received increasing conservation attention in recent years.
As of January 2020
, the IUCN
considered all eight species of pangolin on its
as threatened.
The IUCN SSC Pangolin
Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed "Scaling up Pangolin Conservation", in July
2014. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation with an added emphasis on combating poaching and
of the animal while educating communities on its importance.
Another suggested approach to fighting pangolin (and general wildlife) trafficking consists in "following the money" rather
than "the animal", which aims to disrupt smugglers' profits by interrupting money flows. Financial intelligence gathering could thus become a key tool
in protecting these animals, although this opportunity is often overlooked.
In 2018, a Chinese NGO launched the Counting Pangolins movement, calling
for joint efforts to save the mammals from trafficking.
Wildlife conservation group
has identified 159 smuggling routes used by
pangolin traffickers and aims to shut these down.
Pangolins (in rectangular cages)
in an illegal
in
Many attempts have been made to breed pangolins in captivity, but due to their reliance on wide-ranging habitats and
very particular diets, these attempts are often unsuccessful.
Pangolins have significantly decreased immune
responses due to a genetic dysfunction, making them extremely fragile.
They are susceptible to diseases such as
and the development of
in captivity, complications that can lead to an early death.
In addition,
pangolins rescued from illegal trade often have a higher chance of being infected with parasites such as
, further lessening their chance for rehabilitation and reintroduction to the wild.
The idea of farming pangolins to reduce the number being illegally trafficked is being explored with little success.
The third Saturday in February
is promoted as World Pangolin Day by the conservation NPO Annamiticus.
World Pangolin Day has been noted for its effectiveness in generating
awareness about pangolins.
In 2017,
made a public service announcement called
: Jackie Chan & Pangolins (Kung Fu Pangolin)
.
In December 2020, a study found that it is "not too late" to establish conservation efforts for Philippine pangolins (
Manis culionensis
), a species that
is only found on the island province of Palawan.
Taiwan
[
]
is one of the few conservation grounds for pangolins in the world after the country enacted the 1989 Wildlife Conservation Act.
The
introduction of Wildlife Rehabilitation Centers in places like Luanshan (
) in
and
townships in
became important
communities for protecting pangolins and their habitats and has greatly improved the survival of pangolins. These centers work with local aboriginal
tribes and forest police in the National Police Agency to prevent poaching, trafficking, and smuggling of pangolins, especially to black markets in
China. These centers have also helped to reveal the causes of death and injury among Taiwan's pangolin population.
Today, Taiwan has the highest
population density of pangolins in the world.
See also
[
]
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External links
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Look up
in
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29 April 2021 at the
23 October 2018 at the
(PDF)
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at the
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Bromley, Victoria (Director/Producer), Young, Nora (Narrator/Host), Diekmann, Maria (2018).
. United States:
PBS.
, 6 March 2020.
Extant
orders
Kingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
(unranked)
(
inclusive)
(
inclusive)
Mammals of clade
Kingdom:
Phylum:
Class:
Clade
:
Clade
:
Order:
Suborder:
Superfamily:
Family:
See in template:
Family:
†
†
†
†
Superfamily:
†
Family:
†
†
Suborder:
†
Family:
†
†
other
representatives
†
†
Order:
†
Family:
†
(
family)
†
†
†
†
†
†
Subfamily:
†
(paraphyletic subfamily)
†
†
†
Epoicotherium
/
Xenocranium
clade
†
†
†
Family:
†
†
†
Family:
†
†
Family:
†
(paraphyletic family)
†
†
Subfamily:
†
(paraphyletic subfamily)
†
†
Subfamily:
†
†
†
†
Pholidota
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
National
Other
:
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